Unicode and ASCII are now the two-character encoding systems that are most extensively used worldwide. We can process, share and store text in any language through unicode encoding, as opposed to ASCII, which is used to represent text in computers as symbols, characters, and numbers.
What is ASCII?
American Standard Code for Information Interchange is referred to as ASCII. It represents text with numbers. Characters include digits (1, 2, 3, etc.), letters (a, b, c, etc.), and symbols (!). Each character in a text message is changed into a number using ASCII. This collection of figures is simpler to keep in the computer’s memory. If I explain it in laymen’s words then it is the process of giving a character a numerical value.
Let us take an example, an upper case character ‘A’ is assigned as 65, lower case character ‘a’ is assigned as 97. Here’s an image of the ASCII table explaining all the values assigned to the character.
What is Unicode?
Just like ASCII, Unicode also provides one of the ways to uniquely defined numbers. The Unicode encoding method maintains the Unicode standard, which defines emoji and more than 1 lakh 40 thousand characters through 150 modern and ancient scripts.
There are different ways of encoding that can be done through Unicode like UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32. According to statistics, UTF-8 is the most popular encoding used on the World Wide Web.
Differences between ASCII and Unicode
Here’s a table containing some main differences between both.
Unicode
ASCII
Unicode has the ability to encrypt 154 scripts.
An Ascii has the ability to convert only 128 characters with the 7-bit range.
Unicode is a bigger version of Ascii.
Ascii is a smaller version of Unicode.
It represents Universal Character Set.
It represents American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
It can use 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit as compared to the encoding style.
It can use 7 bits to represent a character.
It needs more space.
It needs less space.
An encoding standard is used for electronic communication.
A standard way for encoding and managing the text.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the text encoding standards Unicode and ASCII are of the highest importance in recent communication methods. By now you must have understood that Unicode and Ascii contain their own advantages, it depends on the programmer to use encoding systems as per needs. Feel free to comment below if you are still having any doubts.
Object-oriented programming is a programming model that revolves around an object or entity. Object-oriented programming has been an enormous success for both developers and programmers. Creating a more seamless process and system for their employees and clients has benefited multi-billion dollar corporations. However, a significant amount of time must be devoted to learning programming languages and coding techniques to achieve such a result.
In college or university, a novice programmer typically has a ton of assignments to complete in addition to plenty of homework. Thankfully, there are online services like https://wowassignment.com/do-my-programming-homework/ where you can hire professionals to help you with your programming homework and entrust your projects to qualified, experienced programmers.
Object-oriented programming is based on five fundamental concepts, namely:
Class
Object
Encapsulation
Inheritance
Polymorphism
We will tell you about each of these concepts separately.
1. Concept of Class
The first fundamental concept of object-oriented software is Class. A class is an abstract structure that describes real-world objects from two angles: its properties (characteristics) and methods (the actions it can perform or its behavior).
For example: in object-oriented programming, employees can be represented in the form of a class; in this case, the class Employees represents all the employees who can have as properties a surname, a first name, an address, and a date of birth; the operations that can be performed on employees can be changing their salary, taking leave, retiring, etc.
The Class is ultimately a mold, a template, and all class instances are called objects, which are constructed from the Class by an instantiation process. Therefore, every object is an instance of a class.
The instantiation of a class uses three special methods which are very important to understand.
the default constructor called by default when an object is created (offered by default during compilation if there is no declared constructor),
the copy constructor (or copy constructor) has a single argument of the same type as the object to be created (generally in the form of a constant reference), and it copies the attributes from the object passed in the argument to the object to be created.
the parametric constructor is called if the signature matches that of the constructor.
Accessors (get) and Mutators (set)
These unique methods allow you to call the properties and modify the properties of a class from the outside, like an API. The outside can “call” the Class’s functionalities thanks to them.
Accessors allow you to retrieve the value of the properties of a class instance from the outside without accessing them directly. In doing so, they secure the attribute by restricting its modification. The mutators allow you to modify the value of the properties while checking that the value you want to give to the feature respects the semantic constraints imposed on the Class.
Destructor
This method ends the life of a class instance. It can be called when the object is deleted, explicitly or implicitly.
2. Concept of Object
The second most important concept in object programming is the object. As we said earlier, an object is an instance of a class. The object is a bit like a house built based on a particular plan. As long as architects refer to this plan, they will always produce identical dwellings.
Technically, an object is characterized by three things:
an identity: the identity must unambiguously identify the object (address/reference or name);
states: each object has a default value (when indicated at instantiation) for its properties. These values are called the states of the object;
methods: each object can execute the actions or behavior defined in the Class. These actions are translated in OOP concretely in the form of methods. The possible actions on an object are triggered by calls of these methods or messages sent by other objects.
3. Concept of Encapsulation
The third concept of object-oriented programming is encapsulation.
Its methods can only access the properties of objects. Thus, the Class encapsulates the attributes and the methods that allow manipulating the objects independently of their states.
The encapsulation restricts direct access to the states and prevents object modification outside its methods. For example, if you have a Car class and want to set the value of its color property to blue, you need to go through a method such as a “define the color” implemented by the Class developer. This method can restrict the different color values.
Encapsulation is a mechanism that prevents modification or access to objects by any means other than the proposed methods. It guarantees the integrity of the objects.
Inheritance is the fourth key concept in object programming. It is a concept in OOP that refers to the fact that a class can inherit characteristics (attributes and methods) from another class.
Objects of classes can inherit properties from a parent class. For example, we can define an Employee class and a Manager class, a specialized class of Employee, which inherits its properties.
Inheritance has two main advantages in OOP:
specialization: a new class reuses the attributes and methods of a class by adding operations specific to the new Class;
reuse: you don’t need to recreate the same Class each time for each specialized Class.
5. Concept of Polymorphism
The last essential concept of object-oriented programming is polymorphism. An object-oriented language is polymorphic if it can perceive an object as an instance of different classes depending on the situation. Java, for example, is a polymorphic language.
Conclusion
Developers should have a solid understanding of object-oriented programming, as it is the foundation of many high-level programming languages. You can identify the underlying causes of bottlenecks and eliminate them by writing more creative code by using the fundamental OOP concepts to comprehend how simple programs operate. Developing your skills can be aided by coding suites, learning new languages, and understanding OOP concepts.
New is a keyword in c++ and it is a type of memory allocator which is responsible for allocating memory in a dynamic way. The heap memory is allocated by this operator and it shares the beginning address of the memory assigned to a certain variable.
The working of the new keyword is similar to malloc and both of the keywords can be used with C++.
Although we prefer using new keyword because it possess several advantages over malloc.
Here’s a way to represent new keyword in C++:
data_type variable_name_decided = new data_type ( arguments_passed ) ;
In the above syntax “data_type” refers to the datatype for which you want to create memory space in a dynamic way, “variable_name_decided” is used to represent the variable of a particular datatype, “new” keyword is used to allocate memory dynamically, “arguments_passed” can be arguments passed in the constructor for initializing the constructed object.
We are aware that the heap’s capacity is constrained and that the new operator allocates memory to it. As a result, the new operator will fail if the heap runs out of memory and it tries to allocate memory. The program terminates unexpectedly if your code is unable to handle an exception that the new operator throws if it is unable to allocate the memory.
Code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int *myptr ;
myptr = new int ;
cout << "Please enter your age : " << " \n ";
cin >>*myptr;
cout << "Your age is: " << *myptr << " \n ";
return 0;
}
Output:
Please enter your age :
55
Your age is: 55
What is malloc?
malloc is a method or function used for allocating the desired quantity of memory in heap. The malloc method is always responsible for returning void as its return type which is later type-cased for providing pointer to memory of desired type. Since malloc() is used to create memory dynamically, it is comparable to the new operator in C++. It is basically a standard library function.
In the above syntax “ data_type ” refers as the datatype for which you want to create memory space in a dynamic way, “ variable_name_decided ” is used to represent the variable of a particular datatype, “ data_type * ” is used to typecast to a pointer, “ sizeof ” is used to get the memory size required.
Code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int size;
cout << "Please enter the number of people : " << " \n ";
cin >> size;
int *myptr;
myptr = ( int* ) malloc( sizeof(int)*size );
for( int i=0; i<size; i++) {
cout << "Please type the age of " << (i+1) << " Person: " <<"\n";
cin >> *(myptr+i);
}
cout << "The Age of all the persons are printed below : " <<"\n";
for( int i=0; i<size; i++) {
cout << *(myptr+i) << "\n";
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Please enter the number of people :
3
Please type the age of 1 Person:
34
Please type the age of 2 Person:
54
Please type the age of 3 Person:
22
The Age of all the persons are printed below :
34
54
22
new vs malloc
New
Malloc
New operator can be called in different programming langugages including C#, C++, and Java.
Malloc method is particularly a feature of C programming language, although it can be used in C++ and some other languages as well.
New operator can be used to call certain constructors of a particular object.
Malloc method can never be used to call constructor of any object.
New operator gives the return type which is same as the data type.
Malloc method always return void*.
New operator doesn’t contain any feature to reallocate the memory.
We can use realloc() method to reallocate memory that was earlier allocated by malloc().
New operator throws an exception if it fails in execution.
Malloc method returns NULL if it fails in execution.
Delete method can be used to deallocate the memory allocated by new operator.
Free method can be used to deallocate the memory allocated by malloc method.
Conclusion
In the modern days, new operator is majorly used for allocating the memory as it possesses some advantages over malloc method. Malloc was the old method so it was used before the introduction of new operator.
I hope you were able to understand the difference between new and malloc clearly. Feel free to comment below if you are still facing any difficulties.
The base class pointer can point to both base class & derived class objects. Although, it cannot change the values present in the derived class. Let us see some code examples for the explanation.
Code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Base_Class_Details{
public:
int age;
void setAge(int myage){
age=myage;
}
int getAge(){
return age;
}
string name;
void setName(string myname){
name=myname;
}
string getName(){
return name;
}
void showDetails(){
cout<< "The age of the person is: " << age <<"\n";
cout<< "The name of the person is: " << name <<"\n";
}
};
int main()
{
Base_Class_Details* my_pointer_base=new Base_Class_Details();
my_pointer_base->setAge(20);
my_pointer_base->setName("Pulkit Govrani");
my_pointer_base->showDetails();
return 0;
}
Output:
The age of the person is: 20
The name of the person is: Pulkit Govrani
Code Explanation:
In the above code, we have created a class named as Base_Class_Details. Now we created 2 variables as age, name. Both getter and setter methods are defined for these variables. Then there is a method “showDetails” which is going to print the values of the variables.
It is time to declare a pointer of Base_Class_Details as my_pointer_base along with new keyword inside the main function. Next the setAge & setName methods are called through the pointer to assign values. Lastly we have called the showDetails method to print the details of the person.
Code:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Base_Class_Details{
public:
int age;
void setAge(int myage){
age=myage;
}
int getAge(){
return age;
}
string name;
void setName(string myname){
name=myname;
}
string getName(){
return name;
}
void showDetails(){
cout<< "The age of the person is: " << age <<"\n";
cout<< "The name of the person is: " << name <<"\n";
}
};
class Derived_Class_Details: public Base_Class_Details{
public:
string profession;
void setProfession(string prof){
profession=prof;
}
void showDetails(){
cout<< "The age of the person is: " << age <<"\n";
cout<< "The name of the person is: " << name <<"\n";
cout<<"The profession of the person is: "<<profession<<"\n";
}
};
int main()
{
Base_Class_Details* my_pointer_base=new Base_Class_Details();
Base_Class_Details base_object;
Derived_Class_Details derived_object;
my_pointer_base = &derived_object; // Here our base class pointer is pointing to the derived class
my_pointer_base->setAge(20);
my_pointer_base->setName("Pulkit Govrani");
// my_pointer_base->setProfession("Freelancer"); //This will result into an error.
my_pointer_base->showDetails();
Derived_Class_Details * my_pointer_derived;
my_pointer_derived = &derived_object;
my_pointer_derived->setAge(21);
my_pointer_derived->setProfession("Freelancer");
my_pointer_derived->showDetails();
return 0;
}
Output:
The age of the person is: 20
The name of the person is: Pulkit Govrani
The age of the person is: 21
The name of the person is: Pulkit Govrani
The profession of the person is: Freelancer
Code Explanation:
In the above code, we have created the same class Base_Class_Details and it contains the same methods as above. Now we have inherited this class onto the class Derived_Class_Details publically.
The Derived_Class_Details class contains an additional function as setProfession which is taking string as an argument.
Let’s move inside the main method, there are two objects created for both Base_Class_Details & Derived_Class_Details classes. The base pointer is pointing to the derived class object. Then we are setting the age, and name of the person through the base pointer.
If you try to access the object from Derived Class then it will throw an error (refer to the commented code where base_pointer is calling the setProfession method.) One more pointer of derived_class is created, followed by setting up the age, and profession of the person. The last showDetails method is called to print the output.
I hope you have understood both of the above programs, feel free to comment below if you are still facing any difficulties.
Vector comes under STL. It can be termed as a dynamic array i.e, we can add or remove elements in vectors even in runtime. This flexibility with values is not possible in the arrays.
Vectors aren’t ordered in increasing or decreasing order, although they can be easily accessed by iterators.
There are different ways through which we can traverse through a vector. In this blog, we will be exploring all those ways.
1. Using for Loop
We will iterate through the vector by accessing all the indexes one after another inside the for loop.
Let us see the code for a better overview.
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
//Taking the below vector as an example.
vector<int> myvector = {10, 50, 20, 60, 43, 32};
cout << "The elements present in the above vector are: " << "\n";
for(int i=0;i<myvector.size();i++) {
cout << myvector[i] << " ";
// i is represented as an index.
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
The elements present in the above vector are:
10 50 20 60 43 32
2. Using while Loop with at() Method
We will iterate through the vector by accessing all the indexes one after another using the at method inside while loop. Let us see the code for a better overview.
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
//Taking the below vector as an example.
vector<int> myvector = {10, 50, 20, 60, 43, 32};
cout << "The elements present in the above vector are: " << "\n";
int lastindex=0;
while ( lastindex < myvector.size()) {
cout << myvector.at(lastindex) << " ";
lastindex++;
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
The elements present in the above vector are:
10 50 20 60 43 32
3. Using an Iterator
An iterator is declared which points to the beginning of the vector, and we increase the iterator by 1 till it doesn’t reach the end of the vector. Let us see the code for a better overview.
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
//Taking the below vector as an example.
vector<int> myvector = {10, 50, 20, 60, 43, 32};
cout << "The elements present in the above vector are: " << "\n";
vector<int>::iterator my_iterator = myvector.begin();
for( my_iterator; my_iterator != myvector.end(); my_iterator++) {
cout << *my_iterator << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
The elements present in the above vector are:
10 50 20 60 43 32
4. Using auto Keyword with for Loop
The auto keyword adjusts the datatype according to the needs. It can only be used with the for loop. Let us see the code for a better overview.
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
//Taking the below vector as an example.
vector<int> myvector = {10, 50, 20, 60, 43, 32};
cout << "The elements present in the above vector are: " << "\n";
for (auto & value : myvector)
{
cout << value << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
The elements present in the above vector are:
10 50 20 60 43 32
There are some similar ways in which we can use while, do-while loop but the main logic is the same. So I hope you have understood this blog clearly, feel free to comment below if you still have any doubts.
Decomposition means dividing a large and complex table into multiple small and easy tables. This removes redundancy, anomalies, and inconsistency in a database. This is the first stage of normalization.
Suppose we have a relational schema R, in which we have attributes as given below:
A1, A2, A3…………An
So R = {A1, A2, A3…………An}
If we decompose it into small parts then R will be divided into the following parts:
R1, R2……..Rx
These all relational schemas belong to the original one R.
R1, R2……..Rx = R
Also, we can write that union of all these subsets belongs to the original set R.
R1 U R2 U R3 ……..U Rx = R
Here R1, R2……..Rx <= R
Also 1<= i <= x (i= number of relation like 1,2,3…..x)
Decomposition is further divided into two parts Lossless and Lossy. Let’s discuss them one by one in detail.
Lossless Decomposition
Loss means data loss while decomposing a relational table. A lossless decomposition is somewhat in which data is not lost because JOIN is used.
First, we decompose a large table into small appropriate tables, then apply natural join to reconstruct the original table.
This is a student database relational table:
Student Details
Sid
Name (Not Null)
Subject (Not Null)
Mobile
Address
1
Raj
English
65468154
51, Vaishalinagar
2
Jyoti
Home Science
87668545
4a, Sukhsagar
3
Vikash
Maths
26865948
H7, Civil Lines
1
Harsh
Maths
Null
R32, Gokul Villa
3
Ajay
Science
86516529
26, Karoli
We can decompose it into two simple tables as given below:
Student Subject Details:
Sid
Name (Not Null)
Subject (Not Null)
1
Raj
English
2
Jyoti
Home Science
3
Vikash
Maths
1
Harsh
Maths
3
Ajay
Science
Student Personal Details:
Sid
Mobile
Address
1
65468154
51, Vaishalinagar
2
87668545
4a, Sukhsagar
3
26865948
H7, Civil Lines
1
Null
R32, Gokul Villa
3
86516529
26, Karoli
If we want to see a common table then we can apply Natural JOIN between both tables like this:
Student Subject Details ⋈ Student Personal Details
Sid
Name (Not Null)
Subject (Not Null)
Mobile
Address
1
Raj
English
65468154
51, Vaishalinagar
2
Jyoti
Home Science
87668545
4a, Sukhsagar
3
Vikash
Maths
26865948
H7, Civil Lines
1
Harsh
Maths
Null
R32, Gokul Villa
3
Ajay
Science
86516529
26, Karoli
In this operation, no data loss occurs, so this is a good option to consider for decomposition.
Lossy Decomposition
In this, the decomposition is performed in such a manner that the data will be lost. Let’s take an example:
Student Details
Sid
Name (Not Null)
Subject (Not Null)
Mobile
Address
1
Raj
English
65468154
51, Vaishalinagar
2
Jyoti
Home Science
87668545
4a, Sukhsagar
3
Vikash
Maths
26865948
H7, Civil Lines
1
Harsh
Maths
Null
R32, Gokul Villa
3
Ajay
Science
86516529
26, Karoli
If we divide this student details table into two sections as given below:
Student Subject Details:
Sid
Name (Not Null)
Subject (Not Null)
1
Raj
English
2
Jyoti
Home Science
3
Vikash
Maths
1
Harsh
Maths
3
Ajay
Science
Student Personal Details:
Mobile
Address
65468154
51, Vaishalinagar
87668545
4a, Sukhsagar
26865948
H7, Civil Lines
Null
R32, Gokul Villa
86516529
26, Karoli
In this Student Personal Details table, the SID column is not included, so now we don’t know that these mobiles numbers and address belongs to whom.
So always decompose a table in such a manner that the data may be easily reconstructed and retrieved.
Tim Berners-Lee, the man who created the World Wide Web, never set out to change the world when he developed what would become one of the most important inventions of our time.
Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, has won many awards in recognition of his contribution to society as a whole and to the internet in particular. Here’s what you need to know about him before you bring him on as an expert or speaker for your next event.
Early Life
Born in London, England, on June 8th, 1955, Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee is a British computer scientist who is often referred to as the creator of the world wide web. His parents had originally wanted him to pursue a career in music, but they encouraged him when he showed an interest in electronics and mathematics. He attended Oxford University where he studied physics and worked with computers. It was during his time at Oxford that he developed what would later become known as the world wide web.
Berners-Lee married a programmer analyst Nancy Carlson, in the year 1990 and had two kids before they got divorced in 2011. Late he married Leith Rosemary, who was director of WorldWideWeb Foundation, in the year 2014.
When he first started developing the program, it was simply a way for scientists to share information more efficiently. While working at CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland, Berners-Lee proposed an internet that would be open to all people and free from commercial restrictions or personal gain. From 1989 until 1990, Berners-Lee spent much of his time trying to get funding for this idea. After 1991, it seemed like it would never happen because funding was not coming through fast enough; however, by 1993 work began on building HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) which became the standard language used for creating websites and sharing information over the internet.
Education and Career
He attended Oxford University and graduated with a first-class degree in Physics from Queen’s College. He did not initially have an interest in computers but instead studied physics and spent time working for CERN in Geneva where he helped create the world wide web.
When he returned to England, he worked at CERN again before eventually starting up his own company called WorldWideWeb. He is also the founder of the W3C which works to standardize technologies that are used online. As well as being famous for inventing the world wide web, he is also well known as an advocate of open standards.
Invention of World Wide Web
In 1989, while working at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, a high-energy physicist by the name of Tim Berners-Lee proposed an idea that he believed would revolutionize how people communicate and share information. He wanted to create a way for people on different computer systems worldwide to talk with one another and share their work. At that time there was no such thing as email or instant messaging, but he recognized that computers were becoming more powerful and affordable which meant they would soon be available in more homes and offices.
Berners-Lee decided that what he needed was an easy way for people using these different machines to find each other’s documents (or pages) and read them.
Later Career and Achievements
In 1980, Berners-Lee helped create a computer system called Enquire. It was one of the first systems that allowed people to search for information through a network and by 1986 he published a proposal for what would later become known as The World Wide Web.
Ten years later, in 1990, he founded CERN where he led two major projects. One was an experiment called WWW (WorldWideWeb) and another project was called Gopher which allowed users to browse files on different servers. His work at CERN led him to be knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 2004. Five years later, in 2009, he received the prestigious Turing Award from ACM (Association for Computing Machinery).
